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Article sur le counselling éducationnel (en anglais seulement)

A Portrait of Counselling: Counsellors' Work Roles and Career Satisfaction

J. David Smith and Edward N. Drodge

University of Ottawa

Abstract

This paper reports on a survey of counsellors who graduated from a Masters-level counsellor education program at a central-Canadian university. Within the context of a larger program evaluation, counsellors were asked to provide information about their work settings, professional activities, and clientele. They also provided information about how satisfied they are with several aspects of their careers in counselling. These data provide a portrait of counselling in the local community as a vibrant, dynamic profession adapting to the ever-changing social, political, and cultural context.

A Portrait of Counselling: Counsellors' Work Roles and Career Satisfaction

We are frequently asked by individuals considering applying to our Masters-level counselling program, “What do counsellors do?” As these prospective students soon discover, there is usually no short, simple answer to this question. A professor from another faculty at our university recently put the same question to one of us (JDS). He conceded at the end of a longer-than-expected response to his question that he was more confused about what constituted counsellors' professional role than he was before he asked his question. For us, these experiences speak to the increasingly broad and multifaceted work role of counsellors in modern society.

Clearly, the profession of counselling has diversified considerably in recent decades from its traditional emphasis on guidance functions in public education systems. Baxter, commenting in 1985 on trends affecting guidance and counselling in the United States, predicted that “although school counsellors will undoubtedly remain the largest single group within the profession, much of the growth will be in other specialities” (p. 24). From today's vantage, it appears that Baxter (1985) was correct in the substance of his prediction, but not in the extent to which the trends apparent in the mid-1980s would transform the profession into what it is today. One study of mostly Masters-level counsellor educators who graduated between 1979-1989 from a university in the American Mid-West offers a germane illustration (Oliver, Moore, Schoen, & Scarmon, 1990). Over the 10-year period examined, schools, initially the dominant career setting for counsellors, were eclipsed by community agencies as the single most common work setting for counsellors.

Several national surveys of doctoral-level counselling psychologists in the U.S. in the 1980s shed light on some of the trends that have influenced the counselling profession. One such trend is increased involvement in providing individual counselling services to remediate psychopathology concurrent with decreased emphasis on providing developmental and preventive counselling services (Watkins, Lopez, Campbell, & Himmell, 1986). Other trends identified in the 1980s (Birk & Brooks, 1986; Watkins et al., 1986) within counselling psychology include the growth of private practice and consulting services as principal work settings, the emergence of individual psychotherapy and psycho-social counselling as the single primary work activity, and the ebbing of vocational assessment and counselling as primary work functions.

Similar trends have been observed among Masters-level counsellors. Hosie, West, and Mackey (1993) surveyed counsellors working in Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs) in the U.S. in the late 1980s. They found that counsellors, along with Masters-level social workers, represented the highest percentage of professional staff working in EAPs and that counselling services for individuals, couples, and families figured substantially among their professional activities. Two other surveys revealed that Masters-level counsellors were represented in similar proportions in substance-abuse treatment centres and mental health agencies across the U.S. (Hosie, West, & Mackey, 1988; West, Hosie, & Mackey, 1987).

Curiously, while there was a considerable number of small- and large-scale surveys of counsellors and counselling psychologists during the 1980s that illuminated trends in the counselling profession, we have been unable to locate any published data collected in the 1990s on this particular theme. Given what we know based on these earlier studies, we expect that the profession will continue to diversify and adapt to the changes occurring in the ambient society. The directions and extent of this diversification, however, remain unclear, particularly within the Canadian context. Knowing what counsellors do and where they do it is vital information for university faculty who want to serve the needs of both counselling students and the ambient community. The “consumerism” mentality increasingly evident among the clients of post-secondary institutions ensures that professional programs that do not adapt to the current needs of the profession and the larger society will soon disappear, as students look elsewhere for an education that meets their needs.

For these reasons we decided to survey individuals who graduated from the Masters-level counsellor education program at the central-Canadian university where we teach. In the context of a larger evaluation of our counselling program, we devised a questionnaire to assist us in answering a range of questions about, among other things, the current state of the counselling profession in the surrounding community. Specifically, we sought answers to the following questions:

1. Where do counsellor-trainees complete their internships and what client populations do they serve?

2. What types of counselling-related activities do counsellor-trainees undertake at their internship sites?

3. Is there a correspondence between counsellor-trainees' internships and subsequent professional work experiences?

4. To what degree are professional counsellors satisfied with their careers, and what were their experiences in the job market?

Method

Our survey questionnaire1 comprises four sections: Part A (Counselling Experience) asks respondents to describe their internship and employment experiences in counselling in terms of (a) work setting, (b) client populations, and (c) counselling-related activities; Part B (Program Evaluation) asks respondents to give their opinions about the M.Ed. in Educational Counselling program, in terms of program content and delivery; Part C (Job Market) deals with respondents' experiences in the job market, tapping their satisfaction with their job and career choice, and difficulty finding a job; and Part D (Background Information) elicits information about respondents' professional and educational histories. The data for the present paper are drawn exclusively from responses to Parts A, C, and D. Data from Part B are not reported here because that section covers dimensions of our program that are not directly relevant to this discussion of counsellors' work roles and career satisfaction. All data were collected primarily, but not exclusively, using closed-ended questions requiring “yes” or “no” responses or ratings on 4- and 5-point scales. We also integrated some open-ended questions into all sections of the questionnaire in order to reduce the constraints on the kinds and quantity of information that respondents provided.

Participants and Procedure

Participants for this survey were solicited from the population of individuals who graduated from the University of Ottawa's M.Ed. program in Educational Counselling, both Anglophone and Francophone sections, between 1990-1998. The survey package, containing the questionnaire and an addressed and stamped return envelope, was sent to 162 individuals. Fifty-one of these individuals had completed the Francophone program and 111 had completed the Anglophone program. Two weeks following the initial mailing, a follow-up letter was sent to all 162 individuals. The letter thanked those who completed and returned the questionnaire for participating in the study and reminded those who had not returned the questionnaire to do so at their earliest convenience.

Results

Of the 162 individuals to whom the survey package was mailed, 67 returned the questionnaire, constituting an overall response rate of 41%. Among these 67 questionnaires, nearly all were fully completed, but a few were only partially completed. We retained all 67 questionnaires and used responses wherever provided. The ratios of surveys mailed to those received across gender and language are nearly identical (ratios range from .41 to .43), indicating that the sample of respondents for this survey is representative of the population of graduates with respect to these variables. The large majority (61%) of respondents were more than 35 years old. Forty-five percent of respondents completed their program part-time, 39% completed their studies on a full-time basis, and the remaining 16% studied both full-time and part-time. One-half of respondents came into the M.Ed. program with a Bachelor of Arts degree, and approximately 36% of these individuals had specialized in psychology. One third of respondents had a Bachelors degree in Education.

Figure 1 displays the range of settings where respondents worked as interns and currently work as professional counsellors. Because many respondents gave multiple responses to this survey item, the percentages presented in Figure 2 are based on the total of “yes” responses to the various settings within each work context (i.e., internship and employment) rather than on the total number of respondents who selected these sites. There were 96 “yes” responses in total registered within the internship category and 69 “yes” responses within the “current or most recent employment” category.

Students in our M.Ed. program are required to complete a minimum of 6 credits of internship experience. Internships are undertaken in local agencies or schools, are supervised on-site by Masters- or Doctoral-level counsellors, and are unpaid. For our respondents, 6-credit internships comprised a minimum of 240 hours (although many interns did considerably more) plus 78 hours of weekly supervision seminars. Schools and community agencies were the most popular choices for internships among survey respondents, each accounting for a quarter of all internship selections. The medical and rehabilitation settings accounts for 15% of selections, followed by college/university and civil service settings, each of which accounts for a further 14% of site selections. Private practice settings account for only 5% of internship site selections. Schools and community agencies are among respondents' most popular choices for employment settings (26% and 22%, respectively). Private sector settings were also popular employment choices for program graduates, much more so than for internship choices. Private practice alone accounted for 22% of employment selections, followed by industry settings, which accounted for 12% of selections. College/university, medical/rehabilitation, and civil service settings together account for the remaining 20% of employment selections, which is considerably less than the 43% of internship selections accounted for by these settings.

Table 1 illustrates the diversity of activities in which counsellors were involved in their internship and are currently involved in their employment, as well as the extent to which they were involved in each activity within these contexts. Respondents indicated their level of involvement in each of the specific activities on a 5-point scale with the following anchors: never (1), rarely (2), sometimes (3), frequently (4), almost always (5). They also had the option of selecting “not applicable” (N/A) if the agency in which they worked did not offer that particular service. In order to present the most comprehensive picture of counsellors' professional role, N/A and blank responses were coded as 1s (never) on the 5-point scale for the purposes of this analysis. As revealed in Table 1, personal counselling for individuals is the single most common counselling activity for respondents, both as interns and as professionals. Several counselling-related activities fall within the mid-range of scores and, therefore, contribute in moderate measure to counsellors' professional role. These include for counsellors: career counselling for individuals, intake and assessment, personal counselling for groups, academic advising, and crisis intervention, and staff training and development, administration, career counselling for groups. Respondents indicated a moderate level of involvement as interns in career counselling for individuals, personal counselling for groups, intake and assessment, academic advising, crisis intervention, and testing. Overall, these data suggest that there is little difference between interns and professional counsellors in terms of the activities that comprise their work roles.

To determine the breadth of activities comprising counsellors' professional role, we counted all scale values of 3 (“sometimes”) and higher across the different professional activities within each of the two working contexts (i.e., internship and employment). These scale ratings presumably represent those counselling activities that constitute the largest part of counsellors' daily activities and, therefore, contribute substantially to their professional role. The mean number of activities undertaken in internship (M = 5.2, SD = 2.3) and employment (M = 6.9, SD = 3.1) shows that respondents engaged in a significantly broader range of counselling-related activities as professional counsellors than as interns, t(52) = -4.85, p < .0005. In the questionnaire, three professional activities (i.e., clinical supervision, administration, and academic teaching) were omitted from the internship column, as they are activities that are inappropriate for a Masters-level internship and presumably would not (or should not) be selected by survey respondents. After these three activities are removed from the analysis, the difference in breadth of counselling activities between internship and the new employment variable (M = 5.9, SD = 2.6) remains significant, t(52) = -2.49, p < .05 .

We asked respondents to indicate on the same 5-point scale used in the section on professional activities how frequently they served clients in each of four different age groups: children, adolescents, adults, and elders. The data revealed that our respondents as interns and counsellors served adults most frequently (respectively, M = 4.2, SD = 1.0; M = 4.4, SD = 0.9) followed (in descending order) by adolescents (M = 3.7, SD = 1.3; M = 3.5, SD = 1.3), children M = 2.7, SD = 1.6; M = 2.8, SD = 1.6), and elders (M = 1.7, SD = 1.0; M = 2.1, SD = 1.2) and that the pattern is essentially the same across internship and employment contexts.

Employment and Career Matters

Survey data indicate that the large majority of counsellors find work in their field. In fact, 82% of all respondents have been employed as a counsellor at some point following their graduation, although fewer respondents (66%) were employed as counsellors at the time they completed the survey. Thirty-one percent of respondents held counselling jobs prior to their graduation from the M.Ed. program. Overall, respondents have held relatively few counselling positions since graduation, averaging just 1.5 positions in total, or 1.8 when only those individuals who have been employed as a counsellor at one time or another (N = 54) are considered. For those individuals who did not have a counselling position at the time of graduation (N =29), it took them approximately 7 months on average to secure a counselling job after graduating. Overall, survey respondents reported having modest difficulty finding a job in the counselling field: On a scale of 1 (“easy”) to 7 (“difficult”), the mean rating of the degree of difficulty finding a job in counselling was 4 (SD = 2.2).

Data from measures of satisfaction related to work within the counselling field indicate that nearly all recent program graduates are satisfied overall with their work and career in counselling. Mean scores on a scale of 1 (“very dissatisfied”) to 4 (“very satisfied”) fell at 3.6 (SD = 0.5) for current or most recent counselling job and 3.5 (SD = 0.8) for choice of counselling as a career. Looking at the data from another perspective, 98% of respondents (N = 56) indicated that they were satisfied or very satisfied with their current or most recent job in counselling, and 95% reported being satisfied or very satisfied with their choice of counselling as a career. On the other hand, respondents expressed a moderate degree of dissatisfaction with their earnings as counsellors: On the same 4-point scale, the mean rating for earnings was 2.7 (SD = 0.9), and one-third of respondents reported that they were dissatisfied or very dissatisfied with their earnings.

In order to probe possible sources of some of the dissatisfaction with earnings, we collapsed scale ratings into two categories, unsatisfied (ratings of 1 and 2) and satisfied (ratings of 3 and 4), and cross-tabulated this variable with each of the work settings. Only three work settings (school, community, and private practice) yielded cross-tabulations with adequate cell sizes. These results reveal a statistically significant finding for the community setting only, c2(1, N = 55) = 5.9, p < .05, and indicate that individuals working in this setting were more often dissatisfied with their earnings than individuals working in the other counselling settings.

An open-ended invitation for respondents to comment on the job market and/or their career choice yielded comments from 36 respondents. The high levels of satisfaction that respondents reported on the quantitative measures with respect to their jobs and careers are echoed in these comments: None of the graduates indicated dissatisfaction with their job or career, and 36% explicitly expressed satisfaction with the counselling profession. Comments also indicate mostly positive experiences in the job market: Two respondents pointed out that they were hired immediately upon graduation and three more suggested that there were many job opportunities for counsellors. Additionally, three graduates stated that they were self-employed and satisfied with their situation. On the other hand, three people reported that there was a poor job market for counselling graduates. The disproportionately large number of comments made by Francophones in this section (53% of respondents to this item) appears to be connected to some of the particular difficulties faced by program graduates who practice in Quebec, where the profession is regulated by the Ordre des conseillers et conseillères d'orientation et des psychoéducateurs et psychoéducatrices du Québec. The gist of many of these comments is that their program of study fell short of the 54 course credits in counselling required for registration in that province.

Discussion

Our survey of Masters-level counsellors who graduated between 1990 and 1998 provided us with an informative database that permits us to examine in some depth the nature of the profession and needs of individuals who wish to join it. This section addresses the following: (a) the professional role of counsellors, in terms of where they work, what they do, and who they serve; (b) the current status of the job market and the satisfaction counsellors experience working in this field; and (c) the implications of these data for counsellor education programs.

Professional Role of Counsellors

Our study has indicated that counsellors graduating from our program are dispersed across a variety of counselling work settings. Given the close ties between counselling and education at our university, it is interesting to note that school settings account for a minority (about one-quarter) of employment choices among our sample of respondents. This finding is consistent with the findings of a recent survey of the Canadian Counselling Association (CCA) (personal communication, June 12, 2000) and an earlier survey of American counsellors (Oliver et al., 1989). In its survey, the CCA found that only about one-fifth of its members occupied traditional guidance positions in schools. Fully three-quarters of the counsellors in our sample work in settings other than schools. These results may be part of a larger North American trend toward a diversification in the role of counsellors that has been observed over the last two decades (Baxter, 1985; Hosie et al., 1993; 1988). This diversification has not been independent of political and fiscal trends. For example, in many jurisdictions there have been significant reductions in the numbers of guidance counsellors employed in schools. Recently in Ontario, some of the basic guidance functions (e.g., assisting students with their career development and decision making) have been partially off-loaded to classroom teachers (Ontario Ministry of Education and Training, 1999). The most common alternative to schools as an employment setting for our counselling graduates is community agencies. These agencies comprise an eclectic mix of organisations that provide a vast array of services ranging from crisis intervention for victims of crime, to counselling and social advocacy for people with chronic mental and physical disabilities, to career counselling for recent immigrants. The presence of counsellors in community agencies is growing and will likely continue to grow as a result of ongoing political and fiscal trends to reduce services (and thereby costs) of large, publicly-funded institutions like schools, hospitals, and psychiatric facilities.

Our data also reveal that a substantial number of counsellors who graduated from our program are finding employment in the private sector. We found that as many counsellors in our sample work in private practice as in school and community settings. This finding is consistent with data from American studies of trends within the counselling profession. For example, Cameron, Galassi, Birk, and Waggener, on the basis of their survey findings, predicted in 1989 that private practice would soon surpass all other settings as the place of first employment for counselling psychologists. Another survey of graduate students in counselling psychology revealed that new graduates to the profession are primarily interested in providing clinical services within a private practice milieu (Fitzgerald &  Osipow, 1988). More recently, a Canadian survey conducted by the CCA revealed that private practice is the primary work setting for more than one-third of its members (personal communication, June, 12, 2000). Industry settings, such as Employee Assistance Programs (EAP) housed within a company or (more commonly) out-sourced to private firms, are also common places of employment for counsellors. Employment opportunities will likely continue to grow in this sector, as industry and businesses increasingly realise the dollar value of having healthy, well-functioning employees. On this point, Drury (1986) reported that the proportion of Fortune 500 companies providing EAPs grew from 25% to over 50% between 1972 and 1981. Changes in the job-market in recent years have likely influenced this trend. Work life is much more fluid than previously, with people moving in and out of jobs at greater speed. Furthermore, the skills people need to be effective in their jobs are evolving rapidly in step with technological changes that are re-casting large segments of North American society and culture. Counsellors are well positioned to take advantage of current social and employment trends (Hosie et al., 1993). Counselling is a discipline whose principal preoccupations have been personal and career development across the life-span, advocating human potential, and promoting healthy, adaptive functioning (as opposed to pathology and deficit) in the face of environmental changes and stressors.

Activities and Clientele

Our survey data suggest that the professional role of counsellors is multifaceted and typically combines many different activities. Among this breadth and variety, though, some specific features tend to predominate. For counsellors in our sample, personal counselling stands out as their single, most common professional activity, and adults are the primary recipients of their services. Career counselling, an activity that has distinguished counselling from other mental health professions, remains an important activity for counsellors, although it is clearly secondary to personal counselling among our survey respondents. Academic advising, also traditionally a central activity for counsellors, is practised at about the same frequency as career counselling. The secondary status of these traditional counselling activities could be related to the waning of guidance as a primary role for counsellors in recent decades (Baxter, 1985). A recent manifestation of this trend in Canada was the CCA's decision to drop the word “guidance” from its name in 1999. Clinical assessment, including psychometric assessment, is an important secondary activity for counsellors. Other prominent activities falling within this secondary tier of counselling activities comprising counsellors' professional role are crisis intervention, staff development and training, and administration.

Counselling as a Career

Overall, counsellors appear to be quite satisfied with their jobs and career choices. We infer from satisfaction ratings and anecdotal comments collected in this study that counsellors find their work to be stimulating and personally rewarding (see also Jones, 1991). The same cannot be said, however, about earnings. A substantial number of counsellors, and particularly those working in community settings, expressed dissatisfaction with their wages. Responses to open-ended questions in the survey suggest that some counsellors are frustrated by the public image of the counselling profession (unregulated in Canada, except in Quebec). They seem to perceive themselves as having lower status and prestige relative to members of other mental health professions, like social work, psychology, and nursing (i.e., psychiatric nursing), which are subject to statutory regulation. Given the effects of regulation on the economic interests of a profession (see Handelsman & Uhlemann, 1998), it seems reasonable to speculate that part of this frustration is due to lower wages counsellors receive compared to counterparts in regulated professions. Counsellors working in community agencies may be, at least in economic terms, doubly disadvantaged, as they typically are not unionised like counterparts in other settings such as schools or government. A survey of counselling psychologists in the U.S. revealed that while the large majority of counsellors were satisfied with their careers, nearly half of them would make different career choices if they could live their lives over again (Watkins et al., 1986). Many of those who would change their career decisions would opt instead for more prestigious (and presumably higher paying) mental health professions, like clinical psychology and psychiatry, a finding that seems to echo in our respondents' comments on the questionnaire.

Concluding Remarks

Our study is limited in several important respects that deserve mention. As a survey of counselling graduates from one central-Canadian university between 1990 and 1998, the sample of respondents was not randomly selected, nor is it necessarily representative of the population of counsellors working in Canada. Furthermore, the number of respondents was rather small, and the response rate was lower than for similar kinds of surveys conducted previously (e.g., Watkins et al., 1986). The questionnaire itself was not subjected to psychometric analysis, and its validity as a measurement device rests solely on a thorough analysis of the content domain. Despite these limitations, we believe that the study does provide an illustration, albeit roughly sketched, of the work that counsellors are engaged in.

The career domain of counsellors appears to be richly diverse, both in terms of the professional activities that counsellors engage in and the settings where they carry out these activities. It appears that the trend identified in the U.S. in the 1980s of traditional practice niches like guidance giving way to new areas of practice are similarly transforming the profession in Canada. In any ecosystem, diversity is key to surviving and thriving, and we believe the same applies to a domain like counselling. Having a well-educated and adaptable cadre of counsellors ensures that the profession can continue to adjust itself to ever-changing social and political contexts. For counsellors, this diversity offers new and interesting work opportunities. The growth of counselling in the private sector also offers the possibility of breaking through some of the barriers to higher salaries that counsellors encounter in other settings. As a profession that has long struggled with defining itself, however, this diversity may be perceived as another threat to our identity. This need not be so as long as we remain mindful of the foundations of the profession: facilitating development and growth through the life-span and promoting healthy adaptation, optimal functioning, and well-being. Educating counsellors to use these concepts thoughtfully and with flexibility in different spheres of practice will ensure that the profession benefits maximally from societal developments that continue to affect it.

References

Baxter, N. (1985). Guidance and counseling: New roles, new entry requirements. Occupational Outlook Quarterly, 29(3), 23-28.

Birk, J. M., & Brooks, L. (1986). Required skills and training needs of recent counseling psychology graduates. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 33, 320-325.

Cameron, A., Galassi, J., Birk, J., & Moss Waggener, N. (1989). Trends in counseling psychology training programs: The Council of Counseling Psychology Training Programs survey, 1975-1987. The Counseling Psychologist, 17(2), 301-313.

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Hosie, T. W., West, J. D., & Mackey, J. A. (1988). Employment and roles of mental health counselors in substance-abuse centers. Journal of Mental Health Counseling. 10(3), 188-198.

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Author Note

J. David Smith, Assistant Professor, teaches in the M.Ed. program in Educational Counselling at the University of Ottawa. His teaching and research interests centre on assessment practices in counselling as well as on school-based intervention strategies for aggressive and violent youth. Edward Drodge, formerly a professor of Educational Counselling at the University of Ottawa, works now as an organisational psychologist. His scholarly interests centre on the application of chaos and complexity theory to counselling and organisational systems.

We wish to thank Daniel Lavoie for his contributions to this project and in particular for preparing the French version of the questionnaire used in this study. We also want to thank Brad Cousins for his valuable advice on methodological and statistical matters related to this research project. Finally, we wish to acknowledge the financial support for this research provided by the Office of the Director of Professional Development Programs, Faculty of Education, University of Ottawa.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to David Smith, Faculty of Education, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, K1N 6N5 or sent via e-mail to jdsmith@uottawa.ca.

Footnote

[1] We would be pleased to provide interested readers with a copy of the complete questionnaire upon request.